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Most smaller end users typically use life-cycle -cost evaluation methods, discussed in another article on this web site.
NO FRICTINOAL LOSS PIPESIM UPDATE
Most utilities regularly update their avoided cost of capacity and energy (typically on an annual basis), and use A and B values when specifying a transformer. Put another way, A values provide an estimate of the equivalent present cost of future no-load losses, while B values provide an estimate of the equivalent present cost of future load losses. The use of A and B factors is a method followed by most electric utilities and many large industrial customers to capitalize the future value of no-load losses (which relate to the cost to supply system capacity) and load losses (which relate to the cost of incremental energy). The values of transformer losses are important to the purchaser of a transformer who wants to select the most cost-effective transformer for their application. Values of Transformer Losses (A and B Values) Choice of size and type of core material reduces hysteresis losses. The Greek word, hysteresis, means "to lag" and refers to the fact that the magnetic flux lags behind the magnetic force. This resistance by the molecules causes friction that results in heat. Hysteresis losses come from the molecules in the core laminations resisting being magnetized and demagnetized by the alternating magnetic field. The biggest contributor to no-load losses is hysteresis losses.
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Thinner lamination of the core steel reduces eddy current losses. Hysteresis losses and eddy current losses contribute over 99% of the no-load losses, while stray eddy current, dielectric losses, and I 2R losses due to no-load current are small and consequently often neglected. They can be categorized into five components: hysteresis losses in the core laminations, eddy current losses in the core laminations, I 2R losses due to no-load current, stray eddy current losses in core clamps, bolts and other core components, and dielectric losses. They are constant and occur 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, regardless of the load, hence the term no-load losses. No-load losses are caused by the magnetizing current needed to energize the core of the transformer, and do not vary according to the loading on the transformer. Designers can also reduce the resistance of the conductor by increasing the cross-sectional area of the conductor. Most transformer designers have found copper the best conductor considering the weight, size, cost and resistance of the conductor. They can only change the resistance or R part of the I 2R by using a material that has a low resistance per cross-sectional area without adding significantly to the cost of the transformer. Transformer designers cannot change I, or the current portion of the I 2R losses, which are determined by the load requirements. Hence, heat losses equal (I)(RI) or I 2R. The energy generated by this motion can be calculated using the formula:ÄȘccording to Ohm's law, V=RI, or the voltage drop across a resistor equals the amount of resistance in the resistor, R, multiplied by the current, I, flowing in the resistor. The electron motion causes the conductor molecules to move and produce friction and heat. They are created by resistance of the conductor to the flow of current or electrons. Heat losses, or I 2R losses, in the winding materials contribute the largest part of the load losses. They include heat losses and eddy currents in the primary and secondary conductors of the transformer. Load losses vary according to the loading on the transformer. The losses associated with the coils are called the load losses, while the losses produced in the core are called no-load losses. Transformer losses are produced by the electrical current flowing in the coils and the magnetic field alternating in the core. This article is excerpted from "Premium-Efficiency Motors and Transformers", a CD-ROM is available from CDA through the Publications List.